The ‘province’ of the Dutch Republic in the international Republic of Letters

One of the victims nationalist historiography has been intrinsically transnational culture learning that was so vibrant in United Provinces this country deemed a focal point international world scholarship and science already early modern period. The history Republic Letters promises to offer fruitful alternative nation-based history, precisely because its apparent transnationalism, mobility citizens internationalism book trade. But whereas there is consensus were major scene Letters, extent which learned here ‘international’ remains be established. Speaking ‘extent’ suggests question at stake quantitative nature. Accordingly, article we will attempt quantify Dutch world’s orientation practices by focussing on geography epistolary communication. Before turning our methodology results, first rehearse state affairs province Letters. Historiography traditionally assigns role. It was, after all, Dutchman Erasmus, born Rotterdam, who made famous throughout Europe sixteenth century. also Golden Age one historians Hans Bots, locates heyday although he counterbalancing role for France.11 De Republiek der Letteren (Tilburg: Vantilt, 2018). For another recently published European perspective, see Marc Fumaroli, La République des lettres (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 2015 [= trans. Lara Vergnaud (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018)]). within confirmed celebrated, time again. Heinz Schneppen 1960 listed numerous students from German territories enrolled institutions higher education seventeenth century.22 Schneppen, Niederländische Universitäten und deutsches Geistesleben (Münster: Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1960). Willem Frijhoff his dissertation showed many received doctorates abroad,33 Th. M. Frijhoff, Société néerlandaise et ses gradués, 1575–1814 (Amsterdam: APA-Holland 1981). while Cornelia Ridderikhoff an earlier period demonstrated thriving Dutch-born communities France through her editions archives Germanic nation Orléans.44 Ridderikhoff, Hilde Ridder-Symoens, Detlef Illmer Chris L. Heesakkers, Les Livres procurateurs de la germanique l’ancienne Université d’Orléans, 1444–1602, 4 vols. (Leiden: Brill, 1971–2015). Daniela Prögler Esther Mijers universities remained attractive English Scottish century.55 Prögler, Students Leiden University, 1575–1650: ‘Advancing your abilities bettering understanding affairs’ (Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2013); Mijers, ‘News Republick Letters’: Students, Charles Mackie Provinces, 1650–1750 (Leiden Boston: 2012). See Ridder-Symoens John Fletcher (eds.), Academic Relations between Low Countries British Isles 1450–1700: Proceedings First Conference Belgian, Historians Universities held Ghent, September 30-October 2 1987 (Ghent: s.n., 1989). Not only but professors recruited abroad. In Leiden, minority, especially decade establishment, balance gradually shifted course century, with Germans taking over French minority position people southern Netherlands disappearing. Ronald Sluijter shown before 1600, 41% originated northern soil, figure grew 62% towards end century.66 Sluijter, ‘Tot ciraet, vermeerderinge ende heerlyckmaeckinge universiteyt’: Bestuur, instellingen, personeel en financiën van Leidse universiteit, 1575–1812 (Hilversum: Verloren, 2004), 156. At first, 30% came Countries, share taken hundred years later (in second half quarter origin). A tally entries alba academica Groningen, Utrecht Amsterdam yields following accumulative picture actual numbers) (Fig. 1): Studies student traffic have facilitated enrolment universities, kept or even published.88 Martine Zoeteman, studentenpopulatie 1575–1812: ‘Een volk op zyn Siams gekleet eenige mylen Den Haag woonende’ 2011), 252–89. Correspondence, not, supplied additional material close reading.99 Maarten Ultee, ‘The Place Late Seventeenth Century’, Crossing: Journal Studies, 31 (1987), 58. Intense polemics, carried out pamphlets correspondence, both unpublished, highlight religious-political arena, example relation England.1010 Steven C. A. Pincus, Protestantism Patriotism: Ideologies Making Foreign Policy, 1650–1668 (Cambridge: Cambridge 1996). Helmer J. Helmers, Royalist Republic: Literature, Politics, Religion Anglo-Dutch Public Sphere, 1639–1660 2015), 30, 55, 59–61 passim, argues something ‘Anglo-Scoto-Dutch public sphere’ 1630s onwards. Although Helmers sees sphere as vernacular, Jan Waszink extends it comprise Latin discourses; Waszink, Praelium Nuportanum Isaac Dorislaus: Strategic Historiography’, History Ideas, 42 (2016), 1005–26. Besides reading, correspondence offers interesting source studying transnationalism perspective. metadata letters (sender, recipient, location, address, date, language) allow us chart non-Dutch terms language geographical reach, how changed time. Thus, networks are not understood metaphor interpersonal relations coteries, formal device said relations. Formal social network analysis (SNA), developed field sociology, new history. During 1990s, Padgett undertook series classic studies rise power Medici family Florence, quantifying analysing business marriage ties different Florentine families. New historical featuring SNA appeared ever since, surge digital humanities appearance accessible GUIs (graphical user interfaces) peer-reviewed tutorials, forming trend materialized foundation Historical Network Research 2017.1111 comprehensive up-to-date bibliography network-focused research, site’s bibliography: http://historicalnetworkresearch.org/bibliography/ (accessed 30 An commonly used Gephi UCInet. widely popular, site tutorials Programming Historian https://programminghistorian.org/ other forms communication common subject quantification analysis. Robert Mandrou analysed scholarly 1970s, some contemporary case include those Hatch, Vladimir Urbánek Ingeborg Vugt, mention few.1212 Mandrou, Des humanistes aux hommes sciences, XVIe XVIIe siècles Seuil, 1973); E. ‘Between Erudition Science: Archive Correspondence Ismaël Bouillau’, Michael Hunter (ed.), Formation Exchange Ideas Seventeenth-Century (Woodbridge: Boydell 1998), 49–72; Vladimír Urbánek, ‘Comenius, Unity Brethren, Networks’, Moravian History, 14 (2014), 30–50; ‘Using Multi-Layered Networks Disclose Books Letters’, Research, 1 (2017), 25–51. Most these approach notion qualitative lenses, their generally restricted categorical metadata. This why Ruth Sebastian Ahnert’s study Marian Protestant Tudor stands use measurements SNA, such ‘betweenness’ ‘eigenvector centrality’ (a measurement suited nodes influenced nodes). They created dataset 795 377 individuals, based extracting reported contacts close-reading 289 adding connections letter exchange. However, appropriation without risks, insightful often applied complete, nearly-complete, datasets disciplines easily applicable sources, they warn.1313 Ahnert Ahnert, ‘Protestant Letter Reign Mary I: Quantitative Approach’, ELH, 82 (2015), 5–6. call method Analysis (QNA) define thus: “For any two network, shortest path. Betweenness tells times paths go given node. [...] important connecting people”, http://www.culturesofknowledge.org/?page_id=4593 13 November caveat applies fortiori own dataset; considerably larger size, does take into consideration links than warranted themselves, remarks contacts. sense, designed meaningful whole cannot successfully dataset. Another aspect worth pondering dive analysis, political boundaries community. ideas adopted analytical category look what ‘nationalism’ would mean, or, less problematically, ‘Dutch Republic’. There Republic, legal-political system place, integrates villages, cities, provinces, parishes, classes churches. ‘Dutch’ name (nederduytsch, i.e. Dutch, Saxon, more precise). Discussions about makes states need reiterated here, single language. Benedict Anderson attaches crucial importance formation collective identities transcend urban domain. Anderson, decline vernacular ‘literature’ sense fiction ‘learning’, scholarship) went hand-in-hand fostering patriotic identity.1414 Imagined Communities: Reflections Origin Spread Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), 18–19. We can notions patriotism work itself, least subsection self-identified emphatically religious terms. Remonstrants example, employed stimulate group-identity. First, set gather publish testimonies histories played key-roles tensions drove much polemics engagements century: 1660, Christianus Hartsoeker Philippus Limborch huge collection ‘ecclesiastical theological outstanding erudite men’: 961 folios letters, all Latin.1515 Praestantium ac eruditorum virorum epistolae ecclesiasticae theologicae varii argumenti Henricus Dendrinus, 11660; expanded 2nd edn.: Amsterdam: Wetstenius, 1684 (645 letters); Franciscus Halma, 31704). Subsequently, translated – according editor ‘most inhabitants Netherlands’ had no thus ‘our language-companions countrymen’ barred useful contents.1616 Cited 59–60. Conversely, languages national ones suggest weakening ties. Latin, country’s ‘own’, seen competitive perspective categories operating same aggregation level, requires hierarchical approach. domesticated due neutrality transcendence divides.1717 association medieval (hence Catholic) Church largely liturgy, ignores fact Catholic traditions almost writings. customarily stated gave way Yet, might apply certain domains Provinces.1818 Peter Burke, Languages Communities Early Modern 86. And there, particular should absolute, uncontextualized way, could still marker type Diplomacy, switched sooner scholarship, poets bound fewer reservations classical scholars. Women men (relatively least).1919 Dirk Miert, ‘Language Communication Letters: Uses Joseph Scaliger’, Bibliothèque d’Humanisme Renaissance, 72 (2010), 7–34. authors residing continued Latin: extant figures Gerard Vossius, Caspar Barlaeus Daniel Heinsius exclusively Latin. Nicolaas wrote Pierre Dupuy consistently answered French.2020 Correspondance Jacques Nicolas (1646-1656) (’s-Gravenhage: Nijhoff, 1971), ix–x, 6. Casaubon’s Justus Scaliger’s one-third French. Gijsbert Cuper Bayle ‘as friendship ripened’, suggesting growing intimacy 2).2121 62. communication, together dominant corpus. Curiously, selection vast majority sent written languages. raises speak denoting part adjective certainly (i.e. geographical) linguistic parameter. Within Franco-Dutch strong during long origin omnipresent. Huguenot scholars considerable sway intellectual life century onwards, Scaliger, André Rivet, Claude Saumaise, Jean LeClerc Bayle. Even Roman René Descartes float Francophone like Constantijn Huygens fluent Far integrated illustrious schools background. Protestants return possibilities repatriate. Still, Samuel Hartlib’s circle shows Dury, Lady Ranelagh, Boyle, Benjamin Worsley, Hartlib, Du Moulin brothers Arnold Boate visited collect news.2323 Carol Pal, Women: Rethinking Century 2012), 123. Displaced formed core intelligencers Amsterdam, comprised Streso, Johann Rulice, Godofried Hotton, Louis Geer Morriaen.2424 Robin Buning, ‘A Circle Its Centres: Glimpse Structure Hartlib Circle’, Paper presented workshop “The Practise Scholarly Communication”, Institute Philosophy, Academy Sciences Czech (18 2014). To sum up, assume if corresponding refers residence. well known dynamic transregional learning, transnational, really, communication? propose measure compare strength foreign traffic. exchanges approximations networks, keep mind link live frequent interaction day-to-day basis disappears network. Some void compensated integrating sources further research: amicorum (friendship books) described basic (two names linked date), place room, instead separate cities. Entries function, suggest, ‘inverted letters’: theoretically, fill gaps perceived individuals. Serial promotorum immatriculation lists, likewise time, bear witness sustained pupils institution doctoral candidates. Other conceivable well: texts together, e.g. co-citation, ideally integrated. currently yet integration possible, data entirely accidental, systematically collected either libraries’ (manuscript) holdings. compiled seventeenth-century sources. main criterion whether correspondents most significant career overall sample representative milieu. parameters, selected canonical members wielded influence scientific circles, Hugo Grotius, Huygens, Christiaan Huygens. partly influential administrative positions, reflect intertwining diplomacy characteristic learning. Interestingly, Huygens’ slightly Dutch-oriented, Grotius’ foreign, distribution domestic/foreign quite cases. Their ‘diplomatic’ outlook skew foreign-oriented results. quoted as, respectively, philosopher scientist. balanced Vossius (father son, Christaan). philological Petrus Scriverius, added Anthoni Leeuwenhoek Swammerdam account scientists humanistic profile. care add Anna Maria Schurman involved biblical discussions. Added giants, inserted printers/publishers (Reinier Leers Rabus), antiquarians (Arnoldus Buchelius Junius F. F.), (Isaac Beeckman), historian (Johannes Isacus Pontanus), extremely well-connected middle-of-the road philologist (Theodorus Janssonius Almeloveen) journalist (Henri Basnage Beauval). preponderance ego author node correspondence), Bodleian Library, contain chance merit library. lesser gods, prevent having mere ‘big names’. assemblage give, view, well-balanced cross-section seventeenth-century. Our excludes complete scholars, featured far communicated aforementioned persons Lipsius, Carolus Clusius, Lansbergen, Nicolaus Mulerius, Heinsius, Pieter Cornelisz. Hooft, Gisbertus Voetius, Franco Burgersdijk, Johannes Laet, Andreas Colvius, Fredericus Gronovius, Georgius Graevius, Benedictus Spinoza, Bayle, Herman Boerhaave. Together consist perhaps twenty thirty thousand surviving letters. Therefore, ones, appear others right. addition, obscure identified certainty dataset, duplicated detailed inventory provided appendix. provides insight negotiated potential bias. gross number 36,969. since duplicate referring letter. After deduplication, net reduced 32,374. Never magnitude Age. estimate captured third available location. give indication: Catalogus Epistularum Neerlandicarum, list eleven Netherlands, counts 155 (plus several boxes uncatalogued) individual entire period, including latter eighteenth fall beyond scope article. purposes article, unknown eliminated, year sending established sufficient certainty, purpose periodization. performing operations, resulting amounts total 31,392 disregards chronological patterns, mapping trace bias 3). peaking point, appreciated chart, located 1630–1650. establish inconsistency explain causes peak. argued fails fairly represent community Republic. built around central Grotius whose prolific tilt toward mid-century. Notwithstanding, attenuating conditions. sheer size high level interconnectedness counterbalance tendency over-representing figures, giving depth catalogues. Equally relevant inclusion person-based compilation criterion, Card Catalogue, lists holdings institution. Furthermore, peak letter-traffic view reflects overrepresentation letter-writers, indicates increase driven politico-religious crises Anglo-Franco-Dutch realm. conjunction Thirty Years’ War Civil War, economic cultural activity Bohemian court Hague necessitated intense letter-traffic. reflected independent country. publication record P.C. Knuttel’s catalogue similar spike 1640s.2525 W. P. Knuttel, pamfletten-verzameling berustende Koninklijke Bibliotheek, 9 10 Algemene Landsdrukkerij, 1889–1920). Knuttel Pamphlets website (https://brill.com/view/db/dupo). Matthijs Otegem, ‘Tijd, snelheid, afstand: mechanica het pamflet’, zeventiende eeuw, 17 (2001), 57. As (and lost information) consideration. necessarily preserved did survive altogether random process. If arguably real affairs, worst indicative leading successors process canon worthy being publicized. is, woman true contact follows gendered patterns. avenue focus differences patterns types Compared men, know relatively few women, corpus female correspondence. That said, women Amalia Solms, Beatrix Cusance, Elisabeth Palatinate Reigersberch, set, represented ‘alters’ alters whom (‘ego’) directly connected) Grotius. do expect ratio domestic/international show significantly pattern investigation, aim present article.2626 Women, seven (Anna Schurman, Princess Palatinate, Marie Gournay, du Moulin, Dorothy Moore, Bathsua Makin Katherine Jones, Ranelagh) constituted very transnational. active these, included (as alter correspondent Van Descartes), Schurman). unprecedented therefore objective general impressions